Sherlock Holmes arrived too late to solve one of Britain’s most curious criminal enterprises – a scandal that centered around Queen Victoria herself.
But to be fair, it wasn’t his fault.
You see, the Great Detective made his debut in A Study in Scarlet in December 1887. Just six months earlier, the British Empire was shaken by a coinage blunder that led to one of the most widespread counterfeiting crime waves in British history.
To celebrate Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee in 1887, the mint marked the occasion with a new portrait of the 68-year-old monarch for the nation’s silver and gold coinage. They also took the opportunity to introduce elegant new heraldic reverse designs for some of the silver coins.
Queen Victoria’s ‘Young Head’ portrait (left) was replaced with the ‘Jubilee Head’ portrait (right) in 1887
For the sixpence, this was to cause a national scandal and lead to a costly and embarrassing recall.
For much of Queen Victoria’s reign, the reverse designs of her three smallest silver coins bore the denomination to assist with their identification. Each design followed a similar pattern, comprising a crown at the top, laurel branches at the sides, and the denomination clearly displayed at the centre.
The threepence had the numeral ‘3’, the sixpence the words ‘SIX PENCE’ and the shilling ‘ONE SHILLING’. Whilst not particularly imaginative, the designs helped the public tell the coins apart.
To accompany the Queen’s new Jubilee coin portrait, the mint decided to change the reverse designs on the silver coins (with the exception of the threepence which retained its numeral). Instead of expressing the denomination in words, the sixpence received an elegant heraldic design depicting the crowned Royal Arms on a shield.
The 1887 Silver Sixpence with Shield reverse
Unfortunately, no one at the mint noticed that the new sixpence design now closely resembled the crowned Royal Arms that appeared on the gold half-sovereign.
The 1887 Half Sovereign
The fact that both coins were almost exactly the same size and roughly the same weight did not go unnoticed by enterprising criminals across the country. They wasted no time in purchasing tins of gold-coloured paint in which to dip the new sixpences before passing them off as gold half sovereigns worth twenty-times more!
This meant that large numbers of fake half sovereigns quickly entered circulation, as well as an almost endless supply of sixpences which could be cheaply disguised and passed off as the more expensive gold coin.
What had begun as a thoughtful and delightful way to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of the monarch quickly spiralled into a national crisis which threatened to erode confidence in British coinage.
As the golden deception grew, the government was forced to withdraw all 1887 dated shield sixpences from circulation. These were melted down and restruck with their original reverse design which once again bore the words ‘SIX PENCE’, thereby ensuring that they couldn’t be so easily disguised as gold half sovereigns in the future.
The 1887 Sixpence with the restored ‘SIX PENCE’ reverse
This makes the 1887 shield sixpence one of Britain’s shortest-lived and most infamous coins, and any surviving examples are rare.
Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 313 AD. The western part of the empire fell in 476, but the eastern (or Byzantine) empire, with its capital at Constantinople, would continue for another thousand years after that.
For centuries after his public execution, there was no consensus among artists on how to depict the face of Jesus of Nazareth. The Bible makes no mention of his physical appearance, preferring instead to focus on his words and actions. Contemporary Roman, Greek and Jewish accounts of his life provide us with no evidence either. The earliest known depictions of Christ reflect this uncertainty. In some illustrations, he has long hair and a beard. In others, he is clean-shaven with short, curly hair.
The two very different faces of Jesus that appear on coins struck during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian II show us that even at the beginning of the eighth century, there was still disagreement about how Jesus should be depicted. The older of the two coins struck in 692 AD depicts a long-haired and bearded Jesus, with a face so intricately detailed and full of character that it appears almost to have been sculpted from life.
Gold solidus of Justinian II (692-695 AD)
It has been suggested that the coin engraver based his work on the colossal statue of the bearded Zeus at Olympia as his inspiration. The statue appeared on Greek coins and was destroyed during the fifth century. However, it seems highly unlikely that a pious emperor would select the face of a Greek god to depict his Lord and Saviour. This presents us with a mystery. Who or what was the inspiration for the intricate design?
Over a century earlier, in 525 AD, a chance discovery by workers repairing a wall in the Mesopotamian city of Edessa changed the way that Christ would be depicted forever. High up on the wall, they stumbled upon a hidden niche, and within the small space, they found a container with a strip of linen carefully folded inside.
The city officials would have gazed in wonder at the sight that greeted them. Imprinted onto the linen was the unmistakable image of a long-haired, bearded man with large owl-like eyes, a long nose, and a moustache. How the image had been transferred appeared supernatural, and it was described as having been ‘not made by human hands’.
The people of Edessa knew immediately what the cloth was. According to the history of their city, disciples of Jesus of Nazareth had visited Edessa centuries earlier and entrusted the linen to King Abgar, one of the first rulers to embrace Christianity. However, after his death, the city reverted to paganism, and the cloth was quickly hidden away for its own protection. Now its chance rediscovery prompted rejoicing throughout the Kingdom, and pilgrims soon flocked to Edessa to see the true likeness of their Saviour mysteriously imprinted onto the cloth.
Depictions of the bearded face on the Edessa Cloth (or Mandylion) soon began to appear throughout the Christian world and became known as the ‘Pantocrator’ (all-powerful) image. Within a few years of the rediscovery, the Basilica in Ravenna, Italy, had a beautiful mosaic of Christ based on the distinctive face. At around the same time, St. Catherine’s Monastery at Mount Sinai, nearly three thousand miles away, received a new wall painting with features that also closely matched the face on the mysterious cloth.
Basilica in Ravenna, Italy (left). Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai (right)
In 685 AD, Justinian II became the ruler of the Byzantine Empire at the age of sixteen. In the first years of his reign, he secured a very favourable peace treaty with the neighbouring Arab states in which they agreed on joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus. The new détente, after decades of hostility, would have provided the emperor with access to the Mandylion at Edessa, which Muslims had occupied since 638 AD.
At first, Justinian’s coinage was conventional, but in 692 AD, he decided to place a front-facing portrait of Christ on the gold solidus, semissis and tresmissis, and the silver hexagram. The emperor would have called upon his most skilful engraver at the Constantinople Mint to undertake the task. This may have involved making a trip to Edessa to see the mysterious image up close. The Latin inscription accompanying the portrait, IHS CRISTOS REX REGNANTIUM, can be translated as ‘Jesus Christ, King of those who Reign’. On the reverse, the emperor is depicted standing and holding a cross, surrounded by the inscription DOMINUS JUSTINIANUS SERVUS CHRISTI, translated ‘Lord Justinian, Servant of Christ’.
The emperor’s unprecedented decision to depict Christ on his coins may have provoked neighbouring Muslims, who revere Christ as a prophet but reject His divine status. Despite waging war against the Byzantine Empire several decades earlier, wealthy Muslims used Byzantine gold coins in their transactions because they had a trusted weight. However, after Justinian II put the image of Christ on his coinage, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan was compelled to issue the first Islamic gold dinar in 696 AD. Weighing 4.25 grams, the new Islamic dinar had a broadly similar weight to the solidus’ 4.5 grams, but was a significant departure from earlier Islamic coinage, which had previously imitated Byzantine designs.
The new dinar replaced all pictorial images with Arabic inscriptions declaring “No god but God, unique, He has no associate”, and “God is one, God is eternal, He does not beget nor is he begotten”. Furthermore, Abd al-Malik commanded that anyone who possessed Byzantine or Arab-Byzantine gold coins must hand them in to the mint for restriking or be punished by execution.
Islamic gold dinar minted at Damascus, Syria in 697 AD
In 695 AD, Justinian II was overthrown in a military coup when his former General, Leontios, seized the throne. In Byzantine culture, the emperor reflected divine authority, and since God was perfect, an emperor had to possess no physical defects. Consequently, the ousted emperor suffered the indignity of having his nose cut off to render him ineligible from ever sitting on the throne again before being exiled to the Crimea. Leontios had Justinian’s coinage melted down and remade with his portrait, but three years later, he too fell victim to a coup, which put Admiral Apsimar on the throne, who reigned as Tiberius III. Meanwhile, Justinian arranged for a prosthetic nose to be fitted and formed an alliance with the pagan Bulgars to plot his political comeback, which he achieved spectacularly in 705 AD.
After being restored as emperor, Justinian II promptly had Leontios and Tiberius III executed for their treachery and arranged for new coins to be struck, once again depicting Christ on the obverse. However, the majestic image of the long-haired, bearded Pantocrater was replaced by a much more youthful-looking face, with thick curly short hair and a smaller beard. The image is often referred to as the ‘Syrian’ image after similar depictions have been found in the eastern Mediterranean. The Latin inscription, DOMINUS IESUS CHRISTUS REX REGNANTIUM, can be translated as ‘The Lord Jesus Christ is the King of Kings’.
The second image of Jesus to appear on the gold coins of Justinian II from 705AD. Note the globe that the emperor holds inscribed with the word PAX (peace)
Why Justinian II chose such a completely different image of Christ for the coins of his second reign has long been debated. The answer may lie in the fact that during his exile, the Arabs had taken advantage of the political instability in Constantinople to attack Byzantine territories in North Africa and Asia Minor. Leontios and Tiberius III proved incapable of preventing them. So, with the resumption of hostilities, Justinian II may well have found his access to the Mandylion in the Muslim-controlled city of Edessa barred.
Surviving examples of Justinian II’s earlier coins in Constantinople would have been difficult to source following the reign of two emperors keen to remove all traces of their predecessor. This would have made it difficult for Mint engravers to copy the previous design struck ten years earlier. It is also possible that Justinian II may have feared for the safety of the Mandylion in the hands of his enemies if he chose to venerate it on his new coinage. Perhaps this explains why the emperor chose to depict himself on the reverse of the new coin (with a normal nose incidentally), holding a globe inscribed with PAX (‘peace’). Later, Justinian added his young son Tiberius to the reverse, and the two of them hold up a cross together.
A new reverse design depicting Justinian II and his young son Tiberius ruling together appeared later in the reign.
It was the last time that this depiction of Christ with short curly hair and a thin beard would appear on Byzantine coins. The reign of Justinian II ended abruptly in 711 AD when another military coup, this time led by General Philippikos, assumed control of the empire. Knowing that mutilation and exile had not stopped Justinian II before, the new emperor began his reign by making sure that his predecessor, together with his six-year-old son, were put to death immediately.
The image of Christ would not appear on coins again for another 132 years. At that time, a major debate raged through the empire over the veneration of religious images (icons), specifically as the Old Testament forbids the creation of objects to worship (Exodus 20:4-5). Emperor Leo III banned all depictions of Christ in 726 AD and ordered their destruction, prosecuting anyone caught venerating them. The situation was not resolved until the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 AD and defended the veneration of images by arguing that Christ had provided one of his own by miraculously imprinting his image onto the Edessa cloth.
In 843 AD Empress Theodora restored the image of the long-haired, bearded Jesus to Byzantine coinage, which by now had become the commonly accepted image of Christ throughout the Christian world.
A century after the debate regarding images was settled, an armed delegation from Constantinople arrived at Edessa and negotiated with city officials to take ownership of the sacred clothin exchange for the release of two hundred high-ranking Muslim prisoners of war. On August 15th, 944, it arrived in Constantinople amidst great public rejoicing and was given a place of honour in the Pharos chapel of Constantinople’s Imperial Palace. Emperor Constantine VII personally inspected the cloth, and described the image as being “extremely faint, more like a moist secretion without pigment or the painter’s art”.
The Edessa cloth bearing the mysterious image of Jesus not made by human hands is welcomed in Constantinople on 15 August 944 AD
The cloth was initially considered too holy to be put on public display. One dignitary who received a private viewing was Gregory Referendarius, the Archdeacon of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, who preached a sermon declaring that Christ had “imprinted the reflection of his form on the linen”. Later, in 1130 a monk named Orderic Vitalis declared that the mysterious cloth of Jesus bore “the majestic form of his whole body … supernaturally transferred”.
Over seventy years later, a French visitor to the city, Robert de Clari, witnessed a weekly ceremony in which “the Shroud in which our Lord had been wrapped … every Friday was raised upright so one could see the figure of our Lord on it”.
In 1204, Constantinople was attacked and plundered by the French-led Fourth Crusade. Many priceless treasures from antiquity were destroyed as the Crusaders rampaged through the city seizing anything of value. It was reported shortly afterwards that “they have taken many relics, including the linen in which our Lord was wrapped’, and the whereabouts of the mysterious cloth with its enigmatic, supernaturally transferred image of Christ, would remain a mystery for the next 145 years.
History is not only shaped by rulers, wars, and treaties, but by fragile moments of chance. Few objects illustrate this truth more powerfully than the silver coins carried aboard the Spanish ship El Cazador. They were intended to stabilise a troubled colony and strengthen the grip of an empire thousands of miles away. Instead, their loss played a pivotal role in empowering another empire and shaping the map of the United States of America.
El Cazador
A Colony On The Brink
The story begins in the closing years of the eighteenth century, when the vast North American territory called Spanish Louisiana faced mounting economic instability. The region, which stretched across what is now Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, formed part of the Spanish Empire. It relied on paper currency that was not backed by silver or gold, making it extremely unreliable and vulnerable to inflation. Confidence in the colonial administration was fragile, and the financial situation threatened Spain’s hold on the region.
Recognising the need to stabilise the local economy, King Carlos III of Spain (r.1759-1788) authorised a substantial shipment of hundreds of thousands of newly minted silver coins. These comprised reales, pesos and smaller denominations, including large quantities of eight-reales, famously known as ‘Pieces of Eight’, respected around the world for their reliability. Their purpose was clear: to inject hard currency into the colony, stabilise trade, and reaffirm Spain’s authority in North America.
To deliver this fortune, the king selected a trusted sea captain, Gabriel de Campos y Pineda, to command the brigantine El Cazador. The ship sailed to Veracruz in Mexico to receive her precious cargo. On 11 January 1784, the now heavy-laden ship began the final leg of her journey to New Orleans but never arrived, most likely falling victim to a powerful storm. The El Cazador, her crew, and her cargo were declared lost later that year. What was meant to be a financial lifeline had instead become a silent casualty of the sea.
King Carlos III of Spain
Global Consequences
The loss of El Cazador could not have come at a worse time for Spain. Without the silver needed to restore economic confidence, Spanish Louisiana remained financially unstable and costly to administer. By 1800, Spain had decided that the territory had become a burden rather than an asset, and it quietly handed the land over to France under a secret treaty.
Just three years later, in 1803, the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte sold the land to President Thomas Jefferson for $15 million in what became known as the Louisiana Purchase. This single transaction doubled the size of the United States and permanently altered the geopolitical balance of North America. The absence of El Cazador’s silver had helped set this chain of events in motion.
Had the coins aboard El Cazador safely reached New Orleans, the story may have unfolded very differently. A stronger Louisiana economy would likely have strengthened Spanish control by restoring confidence in the currency and government. This could have delayed or even prevented the Louisiana Purchase. In that alternate history, the expansion of the United States, and perhaps the geopolitical balance of North America itself, could have taken a very different course.
Furthermore, the shifting ownership of Louisiana was tied to the growing alliance between Spain and France. Had Spain been in a stronger financial position and not given the territory to France, Napoleon would not have been able to sell it to the United States, and his imperial ambitions could have been severely impacted. In this sense, the coins of El Cazador represent one of history’s great “what ifs.”
Salvaged Treasure
For more than two centuries, the wreck of El Cazador and her valuable cargo lay undisturbed at the bottom of the sea. Then, on 2 August 1993, chance intervened once again. A commercial fishing trawler aptly named Mistake snagged its net in waters approximately fifty miles south of New Orleans. When the damaged net was hauled aboard, it was tangled with silver coins.
Subsequent investigation revealed the remarkable truth: the crew had accidentally discovered the wreck of El Cazador, resting at a depth of around 90–100 metres. The coins were identified as Eight‑Reales that had been struck at the Spanish mint in Mexico in 1783, conclusively linking them to the long‑lost shipment. Most of the remaining cargo was later successfully recovered, returning these historic coins to the surface after more than 200 years underwater.
Silver coins salvaged from El Cazador
The Eight‑Reales: A Coin That Shaped Commerce
The Eight-Reales coin, struck at the Spanish mint in Mexico and retrieved from the wreck of El Cazador, is a beautiful example of Spanish colonial silver. The denomination was widely accepted across Europe, the Americas, and Asia, and became one of the world’s most important coins. It also played a foundational role in early American commerce, circulating alongside and sometimes in place of local coinage.
The coin’s design also left a lasting cultural imprint. The reverse depicts the Pillars of Hercules wrapped with a ribbon, a motif believed by some scholars to have inspired the modern dollar symbol ($). Whether or not this link is definitive, it underscores the profound influence the coin has had on global monetary history.
The Eight-Reales
A Tangible Connection to History
Coins recovered from El Cazador enable us to hold history in our hands. Few artefacts can claim such an influence on the shaping of world events. Each coin recovered from the wreck bears subtle traces of its long immersion beneath the sea, adding to its authenticity and fascination. These marks serve as quiet reminders of their doomed voyage and the extraordinary forces which have tied them to history.
The treasure of El Cazador provides us with a tangible connection to a dramatic chapter of maritime history, which saw a group of sailors embark upon a perilous and ultimately doomed journey with a cargo that carried the economic ambitions of an empire. The silver coins promised economic stability, greater political leverage, and a stronger Spanish presence in North America. Their loss weakened one empire, strengthened another, and helped shape the modern United States.
The story of the El Cazador serves as a powerful reminder that history does not always turn on grand battles, noble deeds or famous speeches. Sometimes, it turns on a ship that never arrives, a cargo lost to the sea, and silver coins that fail to reach their destination. Today, the coins recovered from El Cazador stand as a silent witness to a turning point in history that changed the world forever.
Coins have long served as more than mere tools of commerce; they are miniature canvases that encapsulate history, culture, and artistry. Across centuries, nations and empires have minted coins that are not only functional but also artistically significant; capturing the essence of their time and place in ways that modern currency rarely achieves.
While some of these nations have long since disappeared and been nearly forgotten, their coins still survive and deserve recognition as treasures of human creativity and ingenuity.
The Rise of Numismatic Art
Throughout history, coins have been a medium through which rulers proclaimed power, celebrated achievements, and expressed cultural identity. From the grand empires of antiquity to the fleeting states of recent history, the artistry imbued in coins tells stories of political ambition, religious devotion, and societal values.
The Hellenistic Kingdoms: Coins of Divine Elegance
Silver tetradrachm of Lysimachus
The coins of Alexander the Great’s successors, the Hellenistic kingdoms, stand as some of the most artistically significant examples in numismatic history. These coins often depicted finely detailed portraits of rulers in a godlike manner, merging human and divine iconography. For instance, coins minted under Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s generals, feature the image of Alexander adorned with the horns of Zeus-Ammon, symbolizing his godly status. The intricate craftsmanship and symbolism of these coins evoke both reverence and admiration for the artistic prowess of their creators.
The Byzantine Empire: A Golden Legacy
The Byzantine Empire, which spanned more than a thousand years, left behind a numismatic legacy characterized by striking imagery and religious themes. Byzantine solidus coins, minted in gold, often featured detailed depictions of emperors alongside Christian iconography, such as Christ Pantocrator or the Virgin Mary.
Byzantine Christ Pantocrator Gold Coin
These coins were not merely currency but also objects of devotion and propaganda, reflecting the empire’s intertwining of faith and governance. Their luminous beauty and meticulous designs continue to fascinate collectors and historians today.
Forgotten Nations: The Artistic Echoes of Modern History
While the coins of ancient empires often garner the most attention, currencies from more recent, defunct nations also offer profound artistic insights. These forgotten coins tell tales of fleeting sovereignty and shifting borders, encapsulating moments of cultural pride and resilience.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire: A Symphony of Cultures
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a melting pot of diverse cultures, produced coins that reflect its rich heritage. Silver crown coins minted during the reign of Emperor Franz Joseph I showcase intricate designs that blend classical motifs with the empire’s distinctive symbols. The harmonious artistry of its coinage and currency is a testament to the empire’s complex yet unified character.
Austro-Hungarian 100-coronas (1908)
Coins from the Austro-Hungarian Empire often bore inscriptions in both German and Hungarian. This was reflective of the dual monarchy established by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which recognized Hungary’s autonomy within the empire. For example, coins minted in Hungary during Franz Joseph I’s reign often included Hungarian inscriptions alongside German ones.
The Ottoman Empire: A Tapestry of Intricate Geometry
Ottoman Gold Coin of Sultani Sulayman
The Ottoman Empire, known for its architectural grandeur and calligraphic artistry, translated its aesthetic sensibilities into its coinage. Ottoman coins often featured elegant Arabic script and geometric patterns, embodying the empire’s Islamic heritage. These coins stood as not only a representation of monetary value but also as an extension of the empire’s artistic traditions, bridging the worlds of functional design and spiritual expression.
The Weimar Republic: Modern Art in Crisis
The Weimar Republic, marked by economic turmoil and political instability, nonetheless produced coins that reflect the artistic movements of the early 20th century. The designs of these coins often drew inspiration from Bauhaus and other modernist movements, showcasing sleek lines and geometric forms. While the republic itself was short-lived, its coins serve as reminders of the resilience and innovation that can arise even in times of hardship.
Coins of the Weimar Republic (1920’s – 30’s)
Conclusion
Today, these artistically significant coins from defunct nations and empires hold value far beyond their original worth. They are sought after by collectors, admired by art enthusiasts, and studied by historians. Their designs, often painstakingly crafted, provide a glimpse into the soul of their creators and the societies they represented.
Coins have long been more than mere instruments of trade; they have served as enduring symbols of power, authority, and ideology. From the ancient empires of Mesopotamia to the modern nation-states, rulers have harnessed the medium of coinage to disseminate political propaganda and immortalize their reigns. These small, tangible artifacts have transcended their economic function to become vehicles of communication, carrying messages of legitimacy, conquest, and cultural dominance across centuries.
The Origins of Coinage as Propaganda
The use of coins as a means of political messaging can be traced back to antiquity. One of the earliest examples comes from the ancient civilizations of Lydia and Persia, where rulers began issuing coins bearing their likeness or symbols of divine favour. The face of a king on a coin was not merely decorative—it was a statement. It affirmed the ruler’s divine right to govern and reminded subjects of their allegiance to a central authority.
Athenian Silver Owl (440 – 400 BC)
In the Greek city-states, coinage reflected not only the wealth but also the identity of the polis. The Athenian tetradrachm famously featured the owl of Athena, symbolizing wisdom and the city’s patron deity, alongside inscriptions that asserted Athens’ dominance in trade and culture. By circulating these coins throughout the Mediterranean, Athens projected its power and influence far beyond its borders.
Roman Coins: A Masterclass in Political Messaging
Perhaps no civilization perfected the art of propagandistic coinage quite like the Romans. From the Republic to the Empire, Roman rulers used coins as tools to consolidate power, celebrate military victories, and reinforce loyalty. Julius Caesar, for instance, was the first living Roman to have his portrait minted on coins—a bold move that signified his ambition and foreshadowed the transition from Republic to Empire.
Julius Caesar Silver Coin
The emperors who followed Caesar continued to exploit coinage as a medium of propaganda. Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, adorned his coins with images of Pax Romana, symbolizing the peace and prosperity brought under his rule. His successors, such as Trajan and Constantine, commemorated their military triumphs and religious policies through intricate designs and inscriptions. Constantine’s coins famously featured the Chi-Rho symbol, a Christian emblem, as a declaration of his support for the burgeoning faith and his vision for a unified empire under Christianity.
Pax Romana Coin of Caesar Augustus
Medieval Monarchs: Coins in the Service of Divine Right
During the medieval period, European monarchs used coins to assert their divine right to rule. Kings like Charlemagne and Alfred the Great issued coinage that featured Christian iconography—crosses, saints, and biblical inscriptions—to emphasize their role as God’s chosen rulers. These coins served dual purposes: economic and theological. They were tools of commerce and instruments of faith, reminding subjects of the divine order that legitimized monarchical power.
Umayyad Caliphate Silver Dirham
Islamic rulers, too, utilized coinage to assert their authority and religious identity. The Umayyad Caliphate, for instance, introduced coins bearing Arabic inscriptions, distinguishing them from the Byzantine and Sassanian coinage that had previously dominated the region. These coins were not merely currency; they were declarations of Islamic sovereignty, and the ideological shift brought about by the Caliphate’s expansion.
The Renaissance and the Age of Discovery
With the Renaissance came a renewed emphasis on art and humanism, which found its way into coinage. Monarchs like Henry VIII and Elizabeth I of England used coins to depict their portraits in increasingly lifelike detail, showcasing their wealth and power. These coins were often accompanied by Latin mottos that underscored their political philosophies and divine favour.
1754 Spanish Silver Pillar Dollar showing ‘Plus Ultra’ motto on two ribbons. The ribbon encircling the pillar is believed to be the origin of the modern dollar sign ($)
The colonial powers of the Age of Discovery also leveraged coinage to assert control over newly conquered territories. Spanish coins bearing the Pillars of Hercules and the phrase “Plus Ultra” symbolized the empire’s global ambitions and its expansion into the Americas. By distributing these coins in distant lands, Spain reinforced its dominance and the idea of a universal monarchy.
Modern Coinage: National Identity and Propaganda
In the modern era, coinage continues to play a role in shaping political narratives, albeit in subtler ways. The United States minted coins celebrating its founding fathers and national symbols, such as the bald eagle and the Statue of Liberty, to foster unity and patriotism. Similarly, Soviet coins featured imagery of workers and industrial progress, aligning with the ideals of communism and the glorification of the proletariat.
Even today, many countries issue commemorative coins to mark significant events, leaders, and milestones. These coins serve as reminders of national pride and historical achievements, ensuring that the messages of the state reach even the remotest corners of society.
A variety of national reverse designs for the modern Euro coin.
When the European Union introduced the Euro as a single form of currency for all 12 of its official members in 2002, the reverses of each Euro coin were uniform across the entire EU. But each Member Nation was allowed to create their own coin obverses, featuring national motifs and symbols.
Because euro coins circulated freely throughout the EU, the national obverses of Germany, Italy, Spain, and France could soon be found in markets in Ireland, Finland, Austria, and the Netherlands. But this only helped reinforce the message of European unity and strength through national cooperation.
The Power of Coinage in Historical Memory
Coins, though small and sometimes overlooked, have wielded immense power in shaping historical memory. They are artifacts of propaganda that encapsulate the ideologies, ambitions, and identities of those who issued them. As they passed from hand to hand, coins carried not just monetary value but also the weight of political authority and cultural influence.
By examining the history of coinage, we gain a deeper understanding of how rulers have sought to control narratives and consolidate power through one of the most enduring and universal mediums.
These minted messages, preserved in museums, archaeological sites, and private collections continue to tell the story of humanity’s political and cultural evolution.
The stunning emergency currency that captured Germany’s soul
How German Towns Turned Financial Crisis into Miniature Masterpieces
Imagine holding a piece of history in your hands—currency not just meant to buy bread or pay rent, but to tell stories, showcase art, and embody the spirit of a community. That’s the magic of Notgeld¾emergency money (also called ‘necessity money’) issued in Germany during the turbulent years between the World Wars. These notes were far more than stopgaps in a time of financial crisis; each one is a miniature masterpiece bursting with creativity, history, and local pride (and, unfortunately, more than a little prejudice.)
What Were Notgeld Notes?
Notgeld notes were born out of necessity. During economic turmoil, particularly the hyperinflation of the early 1920s, regular Reichsbank money grew scarce or practically worthless. In response, towns, businesses, and even local institutions stepped up, issuing their own temporary currencies to keep trade alive.
But these weren’t just hastily printed pieces of paper issued by local bureaucrats. Notgeld notes were designed with care, creativity, whimsy, and a touch of daring. They became more than just money—each one was a canvas; telling a unique story of the time and place it came from.
Tiny Works of Art
The beauty of Notgeld lies in its design. These notes transformed mundane currency into vibrant expressions of artistic flair and cultural heritage. Boldly coloured and intricately detailed, they featured everything from whimsical illustrations to striking depictions of historical events.
Designers poured their imaginations into these temporary currencies, crafting them into objects that people cherished long after their monetary use expired.
Picture a note adorned with the silhouette of a medieval castle standing proudly against a fiery sunset, or a scene of villagers celebrating a local festival, complete with laughing children and bustling market stalls. Some notes carried vivid portrayals of mythical creatures or allegorical figures, while others delivered biting satire or poetic wisdom. With such diversity of themes, Notgeld was as much a cultural artifact as it was a medium of exchange.
Echoes of Crisis and Resilience
Considering the turbulent times from which they arose, the themes of Notgeld weren’t always boosting patriotic ideals. Instead, they sometimes reflected the despair and cynicism of the times with a bleak humour.
While the artwork can vary from accomplished to crude, it’s amazing that local governments allowed such scathingly satiric commentary and dark humour to appear in “official” currency. It certainly gives you an idea of the national mood at the time, and how such universal desperation could lead to the spread of Nazism.
During the hyperinflation of the Weimar Republic, many notes bore imagery that captured the chaos and despair of the economy. Cartoons lampooned the absurdity of carrying wheelbarrows full of cash to buy a loaf of bread, while solemn depictions of hardworking farmers and labourers spoke to the strength of ordinary Germans amid adversity. These little notes were like snapshots of a nation’s collective psyche, balancing humour, tragedy, and hope.
Regional pride also played a starring role. Each town or institution issuing Notgeld seized the opportunity to spotlight its identity. Whether through depictions of local landmarks, legends, or cultural traditions, these notes became emblems of communal pride. Holding a Notgeld note was like holding a piece of a town’s heart, a tangible reminder of its history and character.
As we have seen, a deeper study of Notgeld reveals some darker sides to the German culture as well. There are nasty anti-Jewish jokes, disturbing hints of popular prejudice, and much, much more. These notes are a compendium of German memories, hopes and fears in the early 1920s’ and, as such, cover the gamut of human experience during a time of great uncertainty, social stress, and economic panic.
Drinking with the devil. 75 Pfennig Notgeld from Grunberg (1921)
The Legacy of Notgeld: From Necessity to Treasure
Today, the legacy of Notgeld lives on—not as currency, but as fascinating collectibles and historical artifacts. Numismatics enthusiasts and historians alike are captivated by the sheer variety and artistry of these notes. Some are rare gems, issued in small quantities for special occasions or festivals, while others stand out for their exceptional craftsmanship and storytelling.
The survival of these ephemeral currencies is itself remarkable. Printed on inexpensive paper intended to be used and then discarded, many have endured the passage of time, preserved in museums, private collections, and exhibitions. They serve as vivid reminders of a unique chapter in financial and artistic history—a time when even the humblest forms of currency carried immense cultural and emotional weight.
Conclusion
Notgeld is a testament to humanity’s ability to find beauty, storytelling, and meaning even in the most challenging circumstances. These notes are more than relics; they are windows into the soul of interwar Germany, reflecting the trials, creativity, and unyielding spirit of the German people. Their designs capture the essence of local pride, the humour and resilience of people facing hardship, and the boundless imagination of artists who turned emergency currency into treasures.
For anyone fascinated by art, history, or the stories hidden in everyday objects, Notgeld is an invitation to explore a world where money was more than money—it was a celebration of life, culture, and the indomitable human spirit.
Whether with a sneer, a smile, or a bemused shrug, the artists creating Notgeld left us all an incredible visual legacy of the human experience during times of great upheaval and uncertainty.
When archaeologists unearth ancient coins, they’re not just finding currency—they’re uncovering miniature time capsules that can reveal surprising details about the civilizations that created them. Unlike many artifacts that deteriorate over time, coins often survive remarkably intact, preserving their messages across millennia and helping us reach back in time to directly touch their lives.
Perfect Messengers from the Past
Coins possess unique qualities that make them invaluable to archaeologists and historians. They’re officially dated, carry detailed imagery and powerful symbols, and they were usually mass-produced by central authorities and distributed across the lands ruled by that authority.
When a Roman emperor issued a coin proclaiming a military victory, for example, we have direct evidence of how the empire wanted that event remembered. Subsequent historians and even contemporary commentators may have interjected their own bias into their accounts. But the coins of the realm provide indisputable evidence of the ‘official’ tale – at least as the ruling powers wanted it represented.
Furthermore, the distribution patterns of coins tell stories that written records often miss. When Spanish pieces of eight appear in excavations across Asia, they help to map trade networks more accurately than any medieval document or shipping records. A single Byzantine solidus found in a Viking settlement speaks volumes about far-reaching economic connections.
Silent Emperors Speak
During the tumultuous Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 CE), the Roman Empire experienced rapid succession of rulers and civil wars. During this chaotic period, many emperors ruled so briefly (sometimes mere weeks or months) that traditional historical records either never documented them or their names were actively removed from all records over time. Coins bearing their portraits and names, however, have survived as tangible proof of their brief claims to power.
Some notable examples include:
Silbannacus – A complete mystery until the 1930s when a single coin bearing his name and image was discovered. Another coin was found in 2004. Beyond these two coins, we have absolutely no historical records of this emperor.
Domitian II – For centuries, historians considered him fictional until a single coin appeared in France in 1900. A second coin was discovered in 2003, confirming his brief rule around 271 CE as a rebel emperor.
Uranius Antoninus – A Syrian priest who declared himself emperor around 253 CE. Though mentioned very briefly in one historical source, our primary knowledge of his reign comes from his distinctive coins.
These “shadow emperors” demonstrate the remarkable historical value of numismatic evidence. When texts are silent, coins speak—preserving names, faces, and titles that would otherwise have vanished completely from historical record. Their survival also illustrates how thoroughly the Romans established their minting systems, where even short-lived usurpers quickly produced coins to legitimize their claims to power.
History Written in Metal
The true archaeological value of coins often lies in their unintended revelations. Consider the silver content analysis of Roman denarii, which shows gradual debasement—revealing economic stress long before written records acknowledged problems. Similarly, the wear patterns on coins show how long they circulated and how they were handled, providing insights into everyday economic life.
Spanish silver coins that were traded in Asia often feature ‘chop marks’ overstruck into their surface. This practice was particularly common amongst merchants who needed to verify the legitimacy of foreign coins in a market rife with counterfeits.
Coin hoards—especially emergency stashes buried during crises—create especially valuable archaeological snapshots. The Hoxne Hoard in Britain, containing 15,000 coins and buried around 410 CE, coincides precisely with Rome’s withdrawal from Britain. The newest coins in such hoards create terminus post quem dating (the earliest possible date) for whatever catastrophe prompted the burial.
Roman legions often buried their payrolls before a major battle (to avoid it falling into enemy hands if they were defeated.) To this very day, clay jars of Roman coins are still occasionally discovered during road or building construction projects.
Beyond Economics
Perhaps most fascinatingly, coins preserve cultural elements that would otherwise vanish. Religious symbols, architectural details of now-destroyed buildings, and portraits of rulers appear in miniature relief. The temple on Herod Agrippa’s prutah coin gives archaeologists architectural details of structures long reduced to rubble and bare foundations.
Coins also capture evolutionary changes in language, as inscriptions shift from Greek to Latin across the Mediterranean, or from Sanskrit to Arabic across Central Asia, documenting cultural transitions with remarkable precision.
Modern Archaeological Approaches
Today’s archaeologists apply advanced techniques to these ancient treasures. X-ray fluorescence reveals exact metallic compositions without damaging specimens. Digital mapping of find locations creates distribution patterns impossible to see before computerization. Each advance extracts more information from these tiny messengers.
For the dedicated numismatist and archaeologist alike, each coin represents far more than its face value—it’s a direct connection to the people who once held it, a microcosm of their economy, their art, their beliefs, and their identity. These miniature time capsules continue to speak volumes, one small disk at a time.
On June 6th 2024, Samlerhuset coin experts had the incredible honour of touring legal tender D-Day coins across the beaches of Normandy – site of one of the most carefully planned out and pivotal days of the Second World War. Days during which so many brave men and women gave their lives fighting for their country.
Commemorating the invasion of Pegasus Bridge on June 6th 1944, this extraordinary set of two gold coins depicts a British soldier in the forefront of the design, with Pegasus Bridge in the background and other soldiers holding the bridge. One coin has been issued by Monnaie de Paris, the French state mint, and the other issued by British territory Gibraltar. Together, these coins beautifully symbolize the Allied forces valor and determination that fateful day.
Deputy Sales Director Rodolphe Krempp of Monnaie de Paris with The London Mint Office Managing Director Christopher Wood at Batterie de Merville, which was neutralized by the 9th British Parachute Battalion.
Certificates of Authenticity for this set were signed in Normandy by Monnaie de Paris President and CEO Marc Schwartz and The London Mint Office Managing Director Christopher Wood.
Monnaie de Paris CEO Marc Schwartz and Head of Design Joaquin Jimenez presenting coins to French President Macron.
Remembrance ceremonies were held on the beaches of Normandy to commemorate this pivotal day in history and to remember those who sadly never returned home.
The coins toured the five landing areas, starting at Gold Beach where troops of the British 50thInfantry landed on June 6th 1944.
When considering Ionia on the west of Asia Minor’s Aegean coast (modern day Turkey) we are drawing our attention to the birth of coinage.
The kingdom of Lydia held much sway in this area giving protection to those city-states under its influence. It is the Lydian kings who are credited with innovating coinage and it is believed that the very first coins were made in one of these ‘vassal’ Ionian city-states.
In this area, rich in abundant agriculture, there was also an innovation of thought from the minds of figures like Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus and Pythagoras. Athens may take the crown as the cradle of western civilisation but Ionia can lay claim to having formed the basis of Greek philosophy and historical writing.
This school of Ionic rational thought cast aside the supernatural and fostered the study of geography, nature, and research into matter and the universe. It was a movement which, quite literally, dominated the intellectual life of Greece. Also permeating through the fabric of Greek culture was the Ionic language which became the basis of Koine or ‘common speech’, being found in practically all Greek writing, including the New Testament, right through to the modern day.
Ionic architecture, sculpture and bronze casting also made a mark upon the culture of ancient Greece too. The ‘Ionic migration’, as it was called by later writers, was dated to 140 years after the Trojan war and, according to Greek tradition, the colonists had hailed from the other side of the Aegean Sea.
A myth was woven into this migration in which the colonists were led by Neleus and Androclus, sons of Codrus, the last king of Athens. By the 8th century B.C. these settlers from the Greek homeland had confirmed their possession of the coastline and had consolidated themselves into 12 major cities; Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomenae, Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, and Miletus on the mainland along with the islands of Chios and Samos in the eastern Aegean Sea. At a later date the prosperous city of Smyrna was also added to this list.
Each city joined together into a league known as the Ionic or Panionic League. This was a league which differed from most in that they were joined by religion and culture as opposed to politics and war. Each year a colourful festival would take place on the northern slope of Mount Mycale in Ionia called the Panionia. The festivities took place at a temple dedicated to Poseidon, the Panionium, meaning ‘of the Ionians’ and it was this celebration which gave to Ionia its identity as a distinct people of the Greeks.
Guinness, Gods and Greats
In the centuries B.C. Ionia would find itself a part of various empires after the Lydian kingdom fell to Cyrus the Great in 546 B.C. Cyrus’ conquered lands, known to history as the Achaemenid Persian empire, would, within 70 years, set a record which, to this day, is unsurpassed.
In 480 B.C. Xerxes I (of Hollywood movie ‘300’ fame) took the Achaemenid empire up to 44% of the world’s population with a whopping 50 million people all living within its borders. This is now recognised as a Guinness world record and a record of which the ancient Ionians were a part. It wasn’t to last and a precocious young king of Macedonia would take the Persian empire by storm and make it his own; none other than Alexander the Great.
After the Battle of the Granicus River took place in 334 B.C. all the western half of Asia Minor came under Alexander’s rule. Most of the Ionian cities submitted to him and enjoyed great prosperity, all except Miletus. Miletus, the only city in the Ionian League to deny homage to Alexander, was leveled after a long siege and never quite regained its previous splendour.
The majority of the Ionian League city states obligingly struck Alexander’s tetradrachms at their mints, a coin which today is one of the most easily recognisable of the entire ancient world. His successors and the kingdoms that they founded in the western part of Asia Minor would also strike coins at the Ionian city-state mints. The Antigonids, Seleucids and Attalids all ruled over Ionia before it came under Roman rule in 133 B.C., then becoming a part of the Province of Asia.
Under the Roman Empire the principal cities of Ionia experienced a revival of prosperity, and many of the impressive ruins on their sites date from that time. Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, and Chios were among the most splendid cities of the Roman world and continued to flourish in Byzantine times.
Our focus, however, is on the Ionian city of Teos, related by one ancient writer as the birthplace of Dionysus, god of entertainment, art and wine. Here at this thriving seaport was built in the third century B.C. the largest temple dedicated to the Dionysian cult in the ancient world. It was a magnificent structure built entirely in marble, a rock for which Teos was famous for in Roman times being quarried nearby and shipped to Rome until around 170 A.D.
In myth, Teos itself was said to have been founded by Athamas, after whom the city was originally named. Athamas was the descendent of a Boeotian king, also called Athamas, who, after falling into disfavour with the goddess Hera, was inflicted with insanity. It was the responsibility, placed upon King Athamas’ queen, Ino, by Hermes, to help raise the infant Dionysus. As already mentioned, Dionysus was omnipresent in Teos, becoming the city’s patron deity. Actors and musicians flocked to Teos and mixed with the priests of Dionysus’ temple who themselves were theatrical actors. A guild was created which provided paid performances in other cities. Known as the city of artists, Teos’ players guild was the first in history and so it seems appropriate that a musical instrument, in the form of a chelys, should appear on the city’s coinage.
Heavenly Strings
The chelys is known to most in modern times as a lyre and its origins lay deep in mythology with the personal messenger of Zeus and companion of dead souls to the underworld, Hermes. Hermes was born to Zeus and the Pleiad, Maia, who had joined in love in Maia’s luxurious cave. The infant Hermes was born the next day at dawn and immediately set out to make his mark on the world. Upon exiting his mother’s cave, he happened upon a tortoise and devised a plan to make a beautiful new instrument. Hermes hollowed out the tortoise shell, acquired some reeds, ox’s hide and sheep gut and behold, the first chelys had been created. Almost immediately Hermes had tuned the new instrument and was strumming a stream of enchanting songs in praise of his divine mother and father.
Soon after, the precocious baby became intent on other pursuits. Craving meat he hatched a plan to steal some of his half-brother, Apollo’s, sacred flock. In a stroke of deceptive genius, Hermes, under the cover of darkness, herded some of Apollo’s cattle backwards whilst wearing wicker shoes to cover his tracks. An old man in his luxuriant vineyard noticed Hermes carrying out his devious act. The infant god, aware of this, promised the old man a plentiful harvest and a quality batch of wine should he kept quiet.
Soon after, Hermes tended the cattle, slaughtered and skinned two of them before creating a fire and roasting the meat as an offering to the gods. Having made the ritual sacrifice, as one of the gods Hermes couldn’t eat the meat, only savour the aroma. Upon returning to his mother, Hermes tried to act like a helpless baby but his mother wasn’t fooled and so admonished him. His answer was sharp and clever, claiming that he would one day be the prince of thieves and win honour for them among the Olympian gods.
Apollo, upon realising the theft immediately set about finding the culprit. Luckily for Apollo, the old man at the vineyard hadn’t been wooed by Hermes’ promises and so revealed all when questioned. Apollo noticed an eagle with outstretched wings which conveyed to him that the culprit was a son of Zeus. This and a little detective work lead to Maia’s cave where Apollo confronted the baby god. Despite receiving a barrage of lies from Hermes, who explained the impossibility of his actions as he had only been born the previous day, Apollo wasn’t convinced. He wanted justice to be served so brought Hermes to Mount Olympus to answer to Zeus.
Zeus belly laughed upon hearing the excuses being put down before him by Hermes, he then ordered that Hermes, in his role as guide, lead Apollo to the stolen cattle. The orders were duly carried out and upon being reunited with his cattle, Apollo reconciled himself with his half-brother.
Hermes, perhaps with a hint of remorse, took his chelys and serenaded Apollo with songs so enchanting and beautiful that Apollo exclaimed it was definitely worth fifty cows! At this, Hermes gave the chelys to Apollo explaining that he should become a master of the musical art, and Apollo, in turn, gave Hermes a shining whip and put him in charge of cattle herds.
The two returned to Mount Olympus where Zeus united them in friendship. From this point onwards the chelys would become an everlasting signature of Apollo who wouldn’t be seen without it. Writers have alluded to the fact that among the Ionian city-states nowhere was Apollo more worshipped and revered than Teos. This would cause one to justifiably speculate that the chelys on Teos’ coinage actually represents the A-list Olympian god himself.
Griffin d’Or
Adorning the other side of Teos’ beautiful diobol silver coinage is a very regal looking griffin which, too, has a direct link back to Apollo. With the body, tail and hind legs of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle, the griffin, or grypas in ancient Greek, combined the king of the skies and of the land into one creature. Apollo, as god of the sun, took these impressive beasts to be his own sacred companions, drawing his chariot majestically across the sky.
This image is actually depicted on a second century A.D. coin of the emperor Commodus from Lydia. The exalted status as the companion of a god was coupled with an association with treasure and priceless possessions. Various ancient accounts tell of a one-eyed people called the Arimaspians who fought with the griffins for the gold which they fiercely protected. It was said that griffins lay eggs containing golden nuggets and with their strong beaks they were easily able to locate and dig nuggets of gold from the earth.
Stories relate how griffins were sacred in India too. Here they were said to attack and defeat elephants and dragons but, as related in an ancient text by Greek teacher, Philostratus; ‘the tiger alone is beyond their powers of attack, because in swiftness it rivals the winds.’.
Other cultures also held the griffin as sacred way before one appeared on a silver diobol of Teos. Griffin-like hybrids with four legs and a beaked head appeared in ancient Iranian and Egyptian art dating as far back as before 3,000 B.C. Griffins appeared in the art of the Persians, sometimes being represented on jewellery as a protector from evil, witchcraft and even secret slander.
Staying with this theme, griffins were associated with another Greek god, Nemesis, the maiden goddess of retribution, proportion and avenger of crime. Just like Apollo, Nemesis rode in a chariot drawn by griffins. Nonnus, a Greek poet living in Egypt under the Roman empire wrote a particularly chilling mythological account of Nemesis paying a visit to Niobe, the boastful daughter of a Lydian ruler called Tantalos; ‘She (Nemesis) had harnessed racing Grypes (Griffins) under her bridle; quick through the air she coursed in the swift car, until she tightened the curving bits of her four footed birds, and drew up on the peak of Sipylos in front of the face of Tantalos’ daughter (Niobe) with eyeballs of stone.’. In this role, griffins were viewed as beasts of vengeance and they helped Nemesis to exact retribution right the way across the globe.
It was for this reason and for all the other attributes of majesty and power afforded to griffins by the Greeks, Persians, Egyptians and Indians that, to this day, they remain a staple part of the global cultural fabric. Griffins are represented in architecture, emblems, heraldry, logos, in computer games, films and cartoons, they are literally all around us!
It’s no coincidence that the famous author of Harry Potter, J.K.Rowling named one of the houses at Hogwarts ‘Gryffindor’. Not many people realise that this name is a representation of the French ‘griffin d’or’, meaning ‘golden griffin’. As a parting thought the griffin was also known as an animal of intense sexual power, sometimes mating with mares on heat resulting in a beast called a Hippogriff. Those in the know will be aware that a Hippogriff named Buckbeak was expertly ridden by Harry Potter in The Prisoner of Azkaban.
ARTICLE RECAP:
The Silver Griffin from the Land of Wine & Song
These coins were struck more than 2,300 years ago in Teos, an ancient Greek city located on an Ionian isthmus on the Aegean Sea. The city was famous for its wine and was famous its temple in honor Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and good times.
Mythical Griffin: This obverse of this coin features the mythological Griffin, a beast with the body, tail and back legs of a lion, and the head and wings of an eagle. In the lore of the ancient Scythians, Griffins were said to be fierce guards of their gold.
The coin’s reverse depicts a Chelys, an ancient musical instrument made from a tortoise shell. The symbolism of a musical instrument points to the focus on ‘wine, women, and song’ which the lusty Dionysus was infamous for.
The coin is also inscribed with the THI, which means “of the Teans” and ALYPION, the name of the magistrate responsible for minting and issuing these coins.
The ancient Greek city of Teos was once a vibrant trading port on the coast of Ionia (now part of western Turkey.) After being abandoned during a time of invasion, the town was later reinhabited and became known for its wine, exciting theater and its Temple dedicated to Dionysus – the god of wine, fertility and wild drunken revelry.
The Griffin is a mythical creature half lion and half eagle. Considered the king of all creatures, Griffins were associated with wealth, and they were believed to lay eggs that contained gold nuggets. The griffin was sacred to Apollo, to whom most of Ionian cities worshiped, but nowhere more so than in Teos, where the city’s population held Apollo in particularly high regard.
The Chelys: As already mentioned, Dionysus was Teos’ patron deity. Actors and musicians flocked to Teos and they mixed with the priests of Dionysus’ temple who themselves were theatrical actors, creating a guild which provided paid performances at other cities. Known as the city of artists, Teos’ players guild was the first in history. It seems appropriate, then, that a musical instrument in the form of a Chelys should appear on the city’s coinage. Because the instrument was closely associated with Apollo, it is also possible that it was chosen for the coin as a symbol of Apollo.
